B. Thompson, Humanists and Reformers, a History of the Renaissance and Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Cambridge, U.K, 1996 Very solid, well researched and clear information. A great foundational source for academic research into the topic question.
Humanitas. (2009, August 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9:34, November 5, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanitas&oldid=306757227
A clear, easy source. Simple to understand whilst providing important information.
Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination, City-states in Renaissance Italy, Pimlico, 2002, Sydney
A thorough and interesting source, focuses on the City-states and provided a lot of important information. Aided the development of my argument, well.
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Trans. George Bull, Penguin Books, London, 2003.
The foundational source for my work. Provided the catalyst for my research.
Peter Bondanella, MarkMusa, The Portable Machiavelli, Penguin Books, London, 1979
Slightly outdated yet still important, provided corroborative evidence for my research.
Thursday, 5 November 2009
his202 essay proper
Machievelli was born in to a wealthy family. He used his knowledge to write a social critique of the problems he saw in society circa 1513, this critique has become widely known due to it's interesting and powerful concepts developed within a context that fully supports the conclusions drawn by Machiavelli.
Without a doubt the Renaissance is a highly interesting era of history. Many scholars debate vigorously about varying aspects of the many different ideas, social movements and changes that took place during this time. Within this forum lies a question. A question that addresses Machievelli and the social milieu of the time. What does Machiavelli's famous work, The Prince, tell us about his attitude towards the Church? How dies his attitude reflect Renaissance thought circa 1514, when The Prince was written? In answering these questions one will come to a richer understanding of the Renaissance as a complex and interesting period in time when many different ideas, beliefs and theories were thrown together in the metaphorical melting pot, and what came out of this pot is still of high importance in academic circles today.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself. It will be evident how sayings such as, "Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence.", or "we are able to "determine our own destiny.", or "we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world." and "we may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way." came to be promulgated throughout society.
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people. Cicero created the humanitas to describe a decent human being. In his eyes it was a necessary move to better the education in Classical studies. From another, yet similar point of view, Pliny the Younger associated humanitas as 'the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater'.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society. It is well known that the life of the Italian people was once a "story cast around self-determing city-states" and that this story came to an end when Charles VIII of France rode in to claim the kingdom of Naples in the autumn of 1494. Large parts of Italy fell to the French and the Spanish and by 1503 the north and south were occupied by the invading countries. This turmoil 'coloured all of life'. There was no escaping the harsh reality that Italy had fallen to other countries. Lauro Martines puts it well, "Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst."
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context. Thoughts such as:
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' colour Machiavelli's opinion about leadership, and such an opinion has in no doubt been influenced by the taint of the Church. Machiavelli also states that one should 'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength' here he is obviously showing that he has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church. He also states that one should 'endeavour to escape being hated', and to 'honour his word and to be straightforward'. These thoughts provide much depth to the context of his time. It paints a vivid picture of a man thoroughly discouraged with the deceitfulness and eventual failure of the leadership of both Church and State. Machiavelli ponders just how the Church could be deceitful for so long, and he comes to the conclusion that 'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government'.
Without a doubt, Machiavelli would certainly be pleased to know just how significant his work became, not only in his time, but in times after. The Prince shows a clear picture of a society based on harsh realities, developed out of difficult times, however the foundations of the ideas are truth, knowledge, understanding and virtue as a whole. Machiavelli's work, when considered in context, provides a very telling description of his thoughts and feelings at a time when the society in which he lived had fallen from grace and was undergoind a tumultuous period of upheaval. Without a a doubt Machiavelli's attitude towards the Church is less than positive and such an attitude and opinion is clearly a reflection of the attitude of the Renaissance society in italy, circa 1514.
Without a doubt the Renaissance is a highly interesting era of history. Many scholars debate vigorously about varying aspects of the many different ideas, social movements and changes that took place during this time. Within this forum lies a question. A question that addresses Machievelli and the social milieu of the time. What does Machiavelli's famous work, The Prince, tell us about his attitude towards the Church? How dies his attitude reflect Renaissance thought circa 1514, when The Prince was written? In answering these questions one will come to a richer understanding of the Renaissance as a complex and interesting period in time when many different ideas, beliefs and theories were thrown together in the metaphorical melting pot, and what came out of this pot is still of high importance in academic circles today.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself. It will be evident how sayings such as, "Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence.", or "we are able to "determine our own destiny.", or "we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world." and "we may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way." came to be promulgated throughout society.
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people. Cicero created the humanitas to describe a decent human being. In his eyes it was a necessary move to better the education in Classical studies. From another, yet similar point of view, Pliny the Younger associated humanitas as 'the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater'.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society. It is well known that the life of the Italian people was once a "story cast around self-determing city-states" and that this story came to an end when Charles VIII of France rode in to claim the kingdom of Naples in the autumn of 1494. Large parts of Italy fell to the French and the Spanish and by 1503 the north and south were occupied by the invading countries. This turmoil 'coloured all of life'. There was no escaping the harsh reality that Italy had fallen to other countries. Lauro Martines puts it well, "Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst."
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context. Thoughts such as:
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' colour Machiavelli's opinion about leadership, and such an opinion has in no doubt been influenced by the taint of the Church. Machiavelli also states that one should 'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength' here he is obviously showing that he has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church. He also states that one should 'endeavour to escape being hated', and to 'honour his word and to be straightforward'. These thoughts provide much depth to the context of his time. It paints a vivid picture of a man thoroughly discouraged with the deceitfulness and eventual failure of the leadership of both Church and State. Machiavelli ponders just how the Church could be deceitful for so long, and he comes to the conclusion that 'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government'.
Without a doubt, Machiavelli would certainly be pleased to know just how significant his work became, not only in his time, but in times after. The Prince shows a clear picture of a society based on harsh realities, developed out of difficult times, however the foundations of the ideas are truth, knowledge, understanding and virtue as a whole. Machiavelli's work, when considered in context, provides a very telling description of his thoughts and feelings at a time when the society in which he lived had fallen from grace and was undergoind a tumultuous period of upheaval. Without a a doubt Machiavelli's attitude towards the Church is less than positive and such an attitude and opinion is clearly a reflection of the attitude of the Renaissance society in italy, circa 1514.
his202 final essay
Machievelli was born in to a wealthy family. He used his knowledge to write a social critique of the problems he saw in society circa 1513, this critique has become widely known due to it's interesting and powerful concepts developed within a context that fully supports the conclusions drawn by Machiavelli.
Without a doubt the Renaissance is a highly interesting era of history. Many scholars debate vigorously about varying aspects of the many different ideas, social movements and changes that took place during this time. Within this forum lies a question. A question that addresses Machievelli and the social milieu of the time. What does Machiavelli's famous work, The Prince, tell us about his attitude towards the Church? How dies his attitude reflect Renaissance thought circa 1514, when The Prince was written? In answering these questions one will come to a richer understanding of the Renaissance as a complex and interesting period in time when many different ideas, beliefs and theories were thrown together in the metaphorical melting pot, and what came out of this pot is still of high importance in academic circles today.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself.
"Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence."
we are able to "determine our own destiny."
we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world."
We may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way."
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people.
The word humanitas was created by Cicero to describe a good human. In Cicero's opinion it was a necessity for the education in the Classical studies.
Pliny the Younger defined it as the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater (Ep. IX, 5).
Very important is the revival of the Classical Antiquity in the Age of Renaissance by the Italian humanists beginning from Francesco Petrarca, who discovered and studied texts by Cicero.
During the Age of Enlightenment in Germany, the term "Humanität" in the philosophical sense of humanity, was used for "a better human being" or Humanism. It is used for example by Johann Gottfried Herder in his "Briefe an die Humanität" and by Friedrich Schiller.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society.
The life of the Italian people, as a story cast around self-determining city-states, came to an end in 1494. In the autumn of that year, Charles VIII of France, in command of an army of 30,000 men, marched through the Savoyard Alps and descended into the peninsula to claim the kingdom of Naples.
By April 1503, large parts of Italy, in the north and south, lay in the hands of governors French and Spanish.
The experience of the Italian wars coloured all of life - most especially that o the dominant social groups, because they were stricken in their leadership.
Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst.
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context.
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' Rather, he should select from Severus the qualities necessary to establish his state, and from Marcus Aurelius those which are conducive to its maintenance and glory after it has been stabilized and made secure.'
'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength.' p.59 obviously showing that his has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church.
'endeavour to escape being hated' 'honour his word and to be straightforward' p.56
'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government.'
Without a doubt the Renaissance is a highly interesting era of history. Many scholars debate vigorously about varying aspects of the many different ideas, social movements and changes that took place during this time. Within this forum lies a question. A question that addresses Machievelli and the social milieu of the time. What does Machiavelli's famous work, The Prince, tell us about his attitude towards the Church? How dies his attitude reflect Renaissance thought circa 1514, when The Prince was written? In answering these questions one will come to a richer understanding of the Renaissance as a complex and interesting period in time when many different ideas, beliefs and theories were thrown together in the metaphorical melting pot, and what came out of this pot is still of high importance in academic circles today.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself.
"Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence."
we are able to "determine our own destiny."
we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world."
We may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way."
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people.
The word humanitas was created by Cicero to describe a good human. In Cicero's opinion it was a necessity for the education in the Classical studies.
Pliny the Younger defined it as the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater (Ep. IX, 5).
Very important is the revival of the Classical Antiquity in the Age of Renaissance by the Italian humanists beginning from Francesco Petrarca, who discovered and studied texts by Cicero.
During the Age of Enlightenment in Germany, the term "Humanität" in the philosophical sense of humanity, was used for "a better human being" or Humanism. It is used for example by Johann Gottfried Herder in his "Briefe an die Humanität" and by Friedrich Schiller.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society.
The life of the Italian people, as a story cast around self-determining city-states, came to an end in 1494. In the autumn of that year, Charles VIII of France, in command of an army of 30,000 men, marched through the Savoyard Alps and descended into the peninsula to claim the kingdom of Naples.
By April 1503, large parts of Italy, in the north and south, lay in the hands of governors French and Spanish.
The experience of the Italian wars coloured all of life - most especially that o the dominant social groups, because they were stricken in their leadership.
Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst.
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context.
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' Rather, he should select from Severus the qualities necessary to establish his state, and from Marcus Aurelius those which are conducive to its maintenance and glory after it has been stabilized and made secure.'
'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength.' p.59 obviously showing that his has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church.
'endeavour to escape being hated' 'honour his word and to be straightforward' p.56
'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government.'
his202 essay
Without a doubt the Renaissance is a highly interesting era in history. Many scholars debate vigorously about varying aspects of the many different ideas, social movements and changes that took place during this time. Within this forum lies a question. A question that addresses Machievelli and the social milieu of the time. What does Machiavelli's famous work, The Prince, tell us about his attitude towards the Church? How dies his attitude reflect Renaissance thought circa 1514, when The Prince was written? In answering these questions one will come to a richer understanding of the Renaissance as a complex and interesting period in time when many different ideas, beliefs and theories were thrown together in the metaphorical melting pot, and what came out of this pot is still of high importance in academic circles today.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself.
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society.
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context.
To answer this question one must take into account the total social milieu of the time. We must look back to the 13th century when 'rinascita' become known. Working our way up from here one will be able to see just how Machiavelli's The Prince, and the Renaissance thought at the time of writing, became so anti-Papal, pro-education, pro-development of the mind, body, soul and thus, of society itself.
It starts with the rinascita, the rebirth of ancient thought. This rebirth entitled anybody to now ask questions, to make judgements, and to come up with their own ideas. It pushed people to undertake learning in the Ancient thought and to improve upon it. It inspired strong passions about the human spirit, about civic duty, eventually leading to a Republic and strong debate between the Church and the layiety.
In the 15th century, the rinascita grew into humanitas. The humanitas was the name given to a social movement inspired to uphold the importance of human emotions, the importance of a solid, virtuous society, the importance of the liberal arts and the foundational idea of virtue as knowledge. This new way of thinking played a huge role in forming the Italian Republic. This new governmental system appreciated the Ancients, it advocated a desire to learn, it held up the importance of the human spirit and inspired civic values within the people.
This then led to the creation of thought that challenged the Church's position on scripture and truth. Documents such as the Decameron, a medieval allegorical work, were created. Certain stories within the Decameron provide good examples of popular thought of the time; such stories explicate and illuminate issues within the Church such as corruption and infidelity.
These stories came to be well known at the same time that the contemporary thought was delving into hermetic, mystical devotion. The appreciation of education, and the power of knowledge played a huge role in the development of the aforementioned thought. People believed that they were empowered by knowledge, and that this knowledge led them to question the Church's role, the truth of the truth and the validity of the Church's teachings. Thus mystical, hermetic devotion became popular as it was believed to hold the answers to the questions being addressed at the time.
Whilst people were learning more and more about the hypocrisy of the Church they were also learning to think for themselves, furthermore and more importantly, they were learning that it was virtuous to acquire knowledge. This thought spurred them on. As such, it is obvious that the scene was set to be a fertile ground for future dissension against the Church.
In the next few years tensions were high. Prosperity was not always guaranteed. Leadership was failing. War was draining the resources. Obedience to a foreign pope annoyed the patriotic people. The Church was becoming richer and richer in the face of people, the majority of whom were doing it tough during this time. As such, the Church became a perfect victim for the angst and hatred of the pressured society.
It is at this momentous occasion in time when Machiavelli sat down and wrote his defining work, The Prince. The extreme suggestions for socio-political development mirror the the extremely difficult situations occurring all around Machiavelli at the time of writing. All of Machiavelli's thoughts and actions can be linked back to this context.
his202 essay
Rinascita:
"Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence."
we are able to "determine our own destiny."
we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world."
We may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way."
p.3-4 B. Thompson, Humanists and Reformers, a History of the Renaissance and Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Cambridge, U.K, 1996
Humanitas:
The word humanitas was created by Cicero to describe a good human. In Cicero's opinion it was a necessity for the education in the Classical studies.
Pliny the Younger defined it as the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater (Ep. IX, 5).
Very important is the revival of the Classical Antiquity in the Age of Renaissance by the Italian humanists beginning from Francesco Petrarca, who discovered and studied texts by Cicero.
During the Age of Enlightenment in Germany, the term "Humanität" in the philosophical sense of humanity, was used for "a better human being" or Humanism. It is used for example by Johann Gottfried Herder in his "Briefe an die Humanität" and by Friedrich Schiller.
Humanitas. (2009, August 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9:34, November 5, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanitas&oldid=306757227
15 century political unrest/wars
The life of the Italian people, as a story cast around self-determining city-states, came to an end in 1494. In the autumn of that year, Charles VIII of France, in command of an army of 30,000 men, marched through the Savoyard Alps and descended into the peninsula to claim the kingdom of Naples.
By April 1503, large parts of Italy, in the north and south, lay in the hands of governors French and Spanish.
The experience of the Italian wars coloured all of life - most especially that o the dominant social groups, because they were stricken in their leadership.
p.277
Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst.
p.283
Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination, City-states in Renaissance Italy, Pimlico, 2002, Sydney
Machivelli:
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' p.72
'Rather, he should select from Severus the qualities necessary to establish his state, and from Marcus Aurelius those which are conducive to its maintenance and glory after it has been stabilized and made secure.' p67.
'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength.' p.59 obviously showing that his has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church.
'endeavour to escape being hated' 'honour his word and to be straightforward' p.56
'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government.' p. 37
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Trans. George Bull, Penguin Books, London, 2003.
"Human beings are made "in the image of God," meaning that each one has the possibility of being a person of creativity and moral excellence."
we are able to "determine our own destiny."
we are "creators, second only to God; we are the God-appointed governors of the world."
We may "achieve fame - the personal glory attained by an individual who thrusts himself or herself forward in some important, heroic, or prominent way."
p.3-4 B. Thompson, Humanists and Reformers, a History of the Renaissance and Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Cambridge, U.K, 1996
Humanitas:
The word humanitas was created by Cicero to describe a good human. In Cicero's opinion it was a necessity for the education in the Classical studies.
Pliny the Younger defined it as the capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater (Ep. IX, 5).
Very important is the revival of the Classical Antiquity in the Age of Renaissance by the Italian humanists beginning from Francesco Petrarca, who discovered and studied texts by Cicero.
During the Age of Enlightenment in Germany, the term "Humanität" in the philosophical sense of humanity, was used for "a better human being" or Humanism. It is used for example by Johann Gottfried Herder in his "Briefe an die Humanität" and by Friedrich Schiller.
Humanitas. (2009, August 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9:34, November 5, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanitas&oldid=306757227
15 century political unrest/wars
The life of the Italian people, as a story cast around self-determining city-states, came to an end in 1494. In the autumn of that year, Charles VIII of France, in command of an army of 30,000 men, marched through the Savoyard Alps and descended into the peninsula to claim the kingdom of Naples.
By April 1503, large parts of Italy, in the north and south, lay in the hands of governors French and Spanish.
The experience of the Italian wars coloured all of life - most especially that o the dominant social groups, because they were stricken in their leadership.
p.277
Italy had become the playground of the most cynical game that Europe had ever known. No wonder that Machiavelli and poets such as Berni, Folengo, and Aretino came from its midst.
p.283
Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination, City-states in Renaissance Italy, Pimlico, 2002, Sydney
Machivelli:
'A prince also wins prestige for being a true friend or a true enemy, that is, for revealing himself without any reservation in favour of one side against another.' p.72
'Rather, he should select from Severus the qualities necessary to establish his state, and from Marcus Aurelius those which are conducive to its maintenance and glory after it has been stabilized and made secure.' p67.
'strive to demonstrate in his actions grandeur, courage, sobriety, strength.' p.59 obviously showing that his has become disenchanted with the deceitful actions of the Church.
'endeavour to escape being hated' 'honour his word and to be straightforward' p.56
'religion institutions, so powerfully mature that, no matter how the ruler acts and lives, they safe-guard his government.' p. 37
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Trans. George Bull, Penguin Books, London, 2003.
Sunday, 1 November 2009
His202
Learning objectives:
"To develop an understanding of Western culture in the early modern era" periodization.
looking at the period from 1350 to 1750
"To analyse the impact of faith and religion in Western society"
"To discuss the elements of the clash between science and religion"
'Rinascita' - the rebirth of the human arts (Petrarch, Dante, Boccacio) Great figures of the 13 hundreds interested in reviving the skills and arts of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
In this frame of mind Petrarch spoke about humanitas. Recognising and controlling human emotions - maintaining temperance and cultivating a civilisation based on the platonic/stoic traditions of antiquity. It took a liberal education to liberate man from ignorance and to inspire him to greater things. One must liberate themselves from the uncivilised behaviour, from the raw emotions, and in doing so one becomes a cultivated, productive member of the community. The ideals of the ancients were believed to be perfected by the 15th century thinkers. They weren't just emulating the ancient ways, they were improving them.
It would be naive of any historian to think that the renaissance was just a religious issue in the 16th century.
Humanist beliefs blended with Christian values and beliefs.
Emperor Charles 5th maintaining power over the papacy.
Struggle emerged from constant reform in the Church continues into the 16th century, the reform is reflected in the intellectual currents of the period as well as the political imperatives such as Charles the 5th (invested interests in maintaining the harmony and authority of his region).
These issues came to arise in the 30 years war, etc.
17th century idea, if the world is mathematically written than it's written by god. So, essentially, we come to know God's mind through knowledge of nature. This attitude, this interest, reflects the humanistic opinion of this period.
This is what drove John Locke, Samuel Clarke, Voltaire, to talk about God's creation of the world and man's place in nature and relationship with God.
There is a continuitive thought and that is what allows us to talk about the events of this period in their context.
Was the renaissance the beginning of the modern world?
Was the renaissance defined by the emergence of individuality and self-consciousness?
Was there such a thing as a Scientific Revolution, or are the 17th century thinkers best describes as late Renaissance humanists?
What was the relationship between the natural sciences, theology,philosophy, politics and commerce?
Exam content:
Focusing mainly on the second half of the semester.
The only topic from part 1 of the semester and found in the exam is Machiavelli.
Part two: reformation
lectures:
1) Christian Humanism
2) Lutheranism
3) Attempts at Reconciliation
4) Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation)
Compare and contrast Calvin and Erasmus.
Prepare for a question about the cannons and decrees of the council of Trent
Tutorials:
Compare Calvin, Erasmus, Luther
Part three: Scientific revolution
Lectures and tutorials
1)Copernicus
2) Tycho and Kepler
3) Galilo
4) Descartes
5) Bacon
5) Newton and the Newtonian Revolution
Why was Kepler writing about Platonic souls? The magnetism of the planets? Why was he talking about these sorts of things.
Why is someone writing
For what audience?
In what social, political, religious climate?
Aims, interests, agenda?
How do these aims compare to some one else?
Expect to be asked to compare and contrast these authors.
Go back to a small amount of the secondary sources.
Have to answer 3 questions
"To develop an understanding of Western culture in the early modern era" periodization.
looking at the period from 1350 to 1750
"To analyse the impact of faith and religion in Western society"
"To discuss the elements of the clash between science and religion"
'Rinascita' - the rebirth of the human arts (Petrarch, Dante, Boccacio) Great figures of the 13 hundreds interested in reviving the skills and arts of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
In this frame of mind Petrarch spoke about humanitas. Recognising and controlling human emotions - maintaining temperance and cultivating a civilisation based on the platonic/stoic traditions of antiquity. It took a liberal education to liberate man from ignorance and to inspire him to greater things. One must liberate themselves from the uncivilised behaviour, from the raw emotions, and in doing so one becomes a cultivated, productive member of the community. The ideals of the ancients were believed to be perfected by the 15th century thinkers. They weren't just emulating the ancient ways, they were improving them.
It would be naive of any historian to think that the renaissance was just a religious issue in the 16th century.
Humanist beliefs blended with Christian values and beliefs.
Emperor Charles 5th maintaining power over the papacy.
Struggle emerged from constant reform in the Church continues into the 16th century, the reform is reflected in the intellectual currents of the period as well as the political imperatives such as Charles the 5th (invested interests in maintaining the harmony and authority of his region).
These issues came to arise in the 30 years war, etc.
17th century idea, if the world is mathematically written than it's written by god. So, essentially, we come to know God's mind through knowledge of nature. This attitude, this interest, reflects the humanistic opinion of this period.
This is what drove John Locke, Samuel Clarke, Voltaire, to talk about God's creation of the world and man's place in nature and relationship with God.
There is a continuitive thought and that is what allows us to talk about the events of this period in their context.
Was the renaissance the beginning of the modern world?
Was the renaissance defined by the emergence of individuality and self-consciousness?
Was there such a thing as a Scientific Revolution, or are the 17th century thinkers best describes as late Renaissance humanists?
What was the relationship between the natural sciences, theology,philosophy, politics and commerce?
Exam content:
Focusing mainly on the second half of the semester.
The only topic from part 1 of the semester and found in the exam is Machiavelli.
Part two: reformation
lectures:
1) Christian Humanism
2) Lutheranism
3) Attempts at Reconciliation
4) Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation)
Compare and contrast Calvin and Erasmus.
Prepare for a question about the cannons and decrees of the council of Trent
Tutorials:
Compare Calvin, Erasmus, Luther
Part three: Scientific revolution
Lectures and tutorials
1)Copernicus
2) Tycho and Kepler
3) Galilo
4) Descartes
5) Bacon
5) Newton and the Newtonian Revolution
Why was Kepler writing about Platonic souls? The magnetism of the planets? Why was he talking about these sorts of things.
Why is someone writing
For what audience?
In what social, political, religious climate?
Aims, interests, agenda?
How do these aims compare to some one else?
Expect to be asked to compare and contrast these authors.
Go back to a small amount of the secondary sources.
Have to answer 3 questions
the202 essay
A beautiful piece of literature that is deeply rooted in the compassionate message of jesus. To know God, to know truth, to know love and life. It professes the attainment of knowledge - both temporal and eternal - so that we may live the most pure and happy lives possible.
The truth found in the old and new testaments is a mirror of the truth of God.
Without a doubt the Vatican II council played a part in changing the world in the 20th century whilst also being affected by other changes occurring during that same time. After two world wars the mentality of man had become synical and distrusting of faith - the Catholic Church and faith in general was perceived as incompatible with the occurences of the century and thus the beliefs of the people. Faith had been lost through tremendously horrible circumstances. As such, the Church slowly came to realise that it was necessary to reform itself to fit the glove that was now being promulgated by society. This was an immense challenge that was accepted by the fathers of the church with much wonder, interest and even some distaste. And to this day there are still arguments occuring that debate the importance, correctness and relevance of the changes that occurred during and after Vatican II. One of the documents that aided the changes is Dei Verbum, the word of God. It is a document that elaborates upon the Dogmatic Constituion on Divine Revelation through a contemporary modern perspective. The roots of sacred scripture and how one may interpret this are uncovered, explored and nutured. Dei Verbum attempts to clarify why scripture is important to the Church, to the people and to faith. It attempts to find a suitable place to put the scripture and a suitable way to explicate it so that it is understandable and pertinent to the modern mentality of man. The document tries to strengthen the foundations of scripture by reiterating the importance of tradition - investigating the shortcomings and the benefits of the application of critical historiography and speculates about the some of the new modern biblical movements. Dei Verbum, is without a doubt, an interesting document - not without controversy. The current Pope, who was once known as Ratzinger, expressed his doubts about the relevance and importance of the document due to several problems he noted in the aforementioned aspects of the document - the modern view of tradition - the problem of critical historiograph and its application to theological scripture and the modern biblical movement. Being a staunch traditionalist it is not surprising that Ratzinger found many of the new theories difficult to agree with. And this situation really sheds light on the problem that was at the heart of Vatican II - How can we make the Church relevant to modern man without losing the heart and soul that has been so powerful for so long? That was the question which was on everyone's mind - and it still is to this day. This essay will attempt to come to a logical and realistic understanding of the Vatican II document, Dei Verbum, in light of the context in which it was born and in light of the current issues of today.
In today's society the Catholic Church faces many problems with regards to defining the truth in divine revelation. One recurring question has is "How do we decide what is true and what is false?"
Ronald Witherup correctly explicates one of the main problems Catholics have encountered in finding the truth, he says "In the Middle Ages the primary way for Catholics to be exposed tot he Bible was not through texts but through stoned and stained glass." This statement alludes to the fact that scripture has been slowly coming more and more into the mainstream picture. And with Vatican II - it has almost exploded onto the scene. Whereas Catholics were once thought of as being completely immersed in sacramental worship, Vatican II has balanced that with an idea of the importance of scripture. Given that fact, it is natural that with the rise of scripture reading there comes with it the rise of scripture interpretation. This is the first issue that Dei Verbum addresses - where is the truth in the scriptures? And why?. Dei Verbum quickly asserts that the truth is found in the tradition and that it has always been found in the scriptures since the early days. If one is looking for the truth, than all one must do is start by looking at the new and old testaments for a foundational view. If one would like, one may follow the development of scriptural interpretation, and thus the dissemination of truth by following the history of the fathers of the church who developed the scriptured, expounding upon them and revealing the truth within the words. Dei Verbum asserts that the truth is found within the scriptures because the scriptures are inspired by God - through man. Man is a vessel of God's truth and knowledge. As such, as much as tradition is true, so are the scriptures because both come from God and both deserve equal veneration.
Furthermore, Dei Verbum explicates the importance of a critical approach to interpreting the scriptures attained via historiographical procedures. The need to properly understand the context of the scriptures and of the scripture writers is explicated and emphasised.
This is not surprising given the fact that both the study of science and study of historiography both underwent massive changes during the 20th century. Whilst these changes were occuring nothing of the same sort was taking place in the Catholic church. As such, it came to a point where the scientific and historiographical advancements were undermining the Catholic faith due to the imbalance between the three faculties of knowledge. Soon enough, the Catholic church seemed outdated in the eyes of society. This opinion largely grew out of scientific and historiographical interpretations of theological subjects. The Church did not respond to the challenges put forward by science and history until it was almost too late. However, when the changes did occur they came about at a time when the human mentality was undergoing a massive foundational change. Reality had been challenged, and society was willing to put forward their own beliefs and ideologies. Many people within the Catholic church noticed this and thus they pushed for the second Vatican council to occur. Given that so much had changed in such a short time within the western world, it is not surprising that some aspects of the second Vatican council deviate from previous councils. For example, Vatican II is almost completely lacking in comdemnatory material. This is probably the case due to the position in which the Church was in - it certainly was not in a position to make harsh judgements - it needed to extend a compassionate and understanding hand - rather than a judgemental and stern fist. Furthermore, the treatment of the topic at hand is totally new. Witherup states, "[the treatment] was independent and not part of a larger topic... it attempted to address multiple, complex aspects of the topic". This groundbreaking treatment, never before seen in the councils, shows just how seriously the topic was to the Church. There could be no mistakes. They devoted large amounts of effort to making sure that they did their best to fix the very real problems the Church was facing.
Even so, the council does retain some recurring and typical characteristics. For example, revelation is ultimately a mystery of how God relates to human beings, God is the trinity - mysteriously three persons and yet one, the Scriptures have multiple layers of interpretation and all layers are important, and there are approximately ten other characteristics that show the continuity between the second vatican council and those that preceeded it. (p.44, Dei Verbum, Witherup)
As such, given the nature of the document. Dei Verbum was highly acclaimed by many scholars due to the "modern and refreshing" character of the document, and Vatican II in general (p59, Witherup). Dei Verbum was received well due to the way it approached and dealt with modern perspectives and ideas. Instead of promulgating traditional notions that were obviously outdated the document breathed new life into the dusty halls of the Catholic Church. This however, did not occur without criticism. Certainly there were some hardcore traditionalists who viewed the Vatican II as a council that knelt at the feet of modernism and begged to be accepted. These traditionalists saw the Vatican II as giving up important aspects of the Church that had made the Church so tremendously unique and powerful. What these traditionalists could not see is that these unique and powerful aspects had lost their charm and their influence due to the rise of science, historiography and a more discerning and intellectually critical mentality prevalent in the modern society. As such, Vatican II has made good out of a very bad situation. Dei Verbum aided the Church in fitting in with modern society whilst also retaining the basic foundational beliefs that make the Church what it is. Whilst also doing this the document went on to emphasise the importance of tradition - a thoroughly antithetical to the professed beliefs of the contemporary society at that stage. Dei Verbum did this in such a way that not only did tradition change in the eyes of many in society from being something old and outdated, but it went on to become something interesting, important and thoroughly captivating. This new interest in tradition saw another rise in biblical scriptural development. Whilst the Dei Verbum did outline the correct way to interpret the scriptures there are still many people out there interpreting the scriptures incorrectly, however, this is far better than a "slow loss of awareness, by a displacement of interest" which is what led to up the problems that the Vatican II addressed. (De Lubac's critique, p.405). Many scholars, such as Avery Dulles found that Dei Verbum refreshes the image of the Church. Some scholars, like Carroll Stuhlmueller found the way Dei Verbum understood and dealt with science very welcoming and impressive. A small amount of scholars, like Donald Senior, found the absence of criticism towards the misinterpretatio of scripture very detrimental to the Church.
In retrospect, it is easy to see just how Dei Verbum has affected the world in areas of theology and academia. In our modern times there are more scholars developing biblical studies, commentaries and other academic developments. Bible studies have become prevalent in parishes, with more and more texts becoming available for this study. This all goes to show that there has been a wide-spread rejuvenation of interest in the scriptures. And due to the guiding nature of Dei Verbum, much of this interest is properly structured.
The truth found in the old and new testaments is a mirror of the truth of God.
Without a doubt the Vatican II council played a part in changing the world in the 20th century whilst also being affected by other changes occurring during that same time. After two world wars the mentality of man had become synical and distrusting of faith - the Catholic Church and faith in general was perceived as incompatible with the occurences of the century and thus the beliefs of the people. Faith had been lost through tremendously horrible circumstances. As such, the Church slowly came to realise that it was necessary to reform itself to fit the glove that was now being promulgated by society. This was an immense challenge that was accepted by the fathers of the church with much wonder, interest and even some distaste. And to this day there are still arguments occuring that debate the importance, correctness and relevance of the changes that occurred during and after Vatican II. One of the documents that aided the changes is Dei Verbum, the word of God. It is a document that elaborates upon the Dogmatic Constituion on Divine Revelation through a contemporary modern perspective. The roots of sacred scripture and how one may interpret this are uncovered, explored and nutured. Dei Verbum attempts to clarify why scripture is important to the Church, to the people and to faith. It attempts to find a suitable place to put the scripture and a suitable way to explicate it so that it is understandable and pertinent to the modern mentality of man. The document tries to strengthen the foundations of scripture by reiterating the importance of tradition - investigating the shortcomings and the benefits of the application of critical historiography and speculates about the some of the new modern biblical movements. Dei Verbum, is without a doubt, an interesting document - not without controversy. The current Pope, who was once known as Ratzinger, expressed his doubts about the relevance and importance of the document due to several problems he noted in the aforementioned aspects of the document - the modern view of tradition - the problem of critical historiograph and its application to theological scripture and the modern biblical movement. Being a staunch traditionalist it is not surprising that Ratzinger found many of the new theories difficult to agree with. And this situation really sheds light on the problem that was at the heart of Vatican II - How can we make the Church relevant to modern man without losing the heart and soul that has been so powerful for so long? That was the question which was on everyone's mind - and it still is to this day. This essay will attempt to come to a logical and realistic understanding of the Vatican II document, Dei Verbum, in light of the context in which it was born and in light of the current issues of today.
In today's society the Catholic Church faces many problems with regards to defining the truth in divine revelation. One recurring question has is "How do we decide what is true and what is false?"
Ronald Witherup correctly explicates one of the main problems Catholics have encountered in finding the truth, he says "In the Middle Ages the primary way for Catholics to be exposed tot he Bible was not through texts but through stoned and stained glass." This statement alludes to the fact that scripture has been slowly coming more and more into the mainstream picture. And with Vatican II - it has almost exploded onto the scene. Whereas Catholics were once thought of as being completely immersed in sacramental worship, Vatican II has balanced that with an idea of the importance of scripture. Given that fact, it is natural that with the rise of scripture reading there comes with it the rise of scripture interpretation. This is the first issue that Dei Verbum addresses - where is the truth in the scriptures? And why?. Dei Verbum quickly asserts that the truth is found in the tradition and that it has always been found in the scriptures since the early days. If one is looking for the truth, than all one must do is start by looking at the new and old testaments for a foundational view. If one would like, one may follow the development of scriptural interpretation, and thus the dissemination of truth by following the history of the fathers of the church who developed the scriptured, expounding upon them and revealing the truth within the words. Dei Verbum asserts that the truth is found within the scriptures because the scriptures are inspired by God - through man. Man is a vessel of God's truth and knowledge. As such, as much as tradition is true, so are the scriptures because both come from God and both deserve equal veneration.
Furthermore, Dei Verbum explicates the importance of a critical approach to interpreting the scriptures attained via historiographical procedures. The need to properly understand the context of the scriptures and of the scripture writers is explicated and emphasised.
This is not surprising given the fact that both the study of science and study of historiography both underwent massive changes during the 20th century. Whilst these changes were occuring nothing of the same sort was taking place in the Catholic church. As such, it came to a point where the scientific and historiographical advancements were undermining the Catholic faith due to the imbalance between the three faculties of knowledge. Soon enough, the Catholic church seemed outdated in the eyes of society. This opinion largely grew out of scientific and historiographical interpretations of theological subjects. The Church did not respond to the challenges put forward by science and history until it was almost too late. However, when the changes did occur they came about at a time when the human mentality was undergoing a massive foundational change. Reality had been challenged, and society was willing to put forward their own beliefs and ideologies. Many people within the Catholic church noticed this and thus they pushed for the second Vatican council to occur. Given that so much had changed in such a short time within the western world, it is not surprising that some aspects of the second Vatican council deviate from previous councils. For example, Vatican II is almost completely lacking in comdemnatory material. This is probably the case due to the position in which the Church was in - it certainly was not in a position to make harsh judgements - it needed to extend a compassionate and understanding hand - rather than a judgemental and stern fist. Furthermore, the treatment of the topic at hand is totally new. Witherup states, "[the treatment] was independent and not part of a larger topic... it attempted to address multiple, complex aspects of the topic". This groundbreaking treatment, never before seen in the councils, shows just how seriously the topic was to the Church. There could be no mistakes. They devoted large amounts of effort to making sure that they did their best to fix the very real problems the Church was facing.
Even so, the council does retain some recurring and typical characteristics. For example, revelation is ultimately a mystery of how God relates to human beings, God is the trinity - mysteriously three persons and yet one, the Scriptures have multiple layers of interpretation and all layers are important, and there are approximately ten other characteristics that show the continuity between the second vatican council and those that preceeded it. (p.44, Dei Verbum, Witherup)
As such, given the nature of the document. Dei Verbum was highly acclaimed by many scholars due to the "modern and refreshing" character of the document, and Vatican II in general (p59, Witherup). Dei Verbum was received well due to the way it approached and dealt with modern perspectives and ideas. Instead of promulgating traditional notions that were obviously outdated the document breathed new life into the dusty halls of the Catholic Church. This however, did not occur without criticism. Certainly there were some hardcore traditionalists who viewed the Vatican II as a council that knelt at the feet of modernism and begged to be accepted. These traditionalists saw the Vatican II as giving up important aspects of the Church that had made the Church so tremendously unique and powerful. What these traditionalists could not see is that these unique and powerful aspects had lost their charm and their influence due to the rise of science, historiography and a more discerning and intellectually critical mentality prevalent in the modern society. As such, Vatican II has made good out of a very bad situation. Dei Verbum aided the Church in fitting in with modern society whilst also retaining the basic foundational beliefs that make the Church what it is. Whilst also doing this the document went on to emphasise the importance of tradition - a thoroughly antithetical to the professed beliefs of the contemporary society at that stage. Dei Verbum did this in such a way that not only did tradition change in the eyes of many in society from being something old and outdated, but it went on to become something interesting, important and thoroughly captivating. This new interest in tradition saw another rise in biblical scriptural development. Whilst the Dei Verbum did outline the correct way to interpret the scriptures there are still many people out there interpreting the scriptures incorrectly, however, this is far better than a "slow loss of awareness, by a displacement of interest" which is what led to up the problems that the Vatican II addressed. (De Lubac's critique, p.405). Many scholars, such as Avery Dulles found that Dei Verbum refreshes the image of the Church. Some scholars, like Carroll Stuhlmueller found the way Dei Verbum understood and dealt with science very welcoming and impressive. A small amount of scholars, like Donald Senior, found the absence of criticism towards the misinterpretatio of scripture very detrimental to the Church.
In retrospect, it is easy to see just how Dei Verbum has affected the world in areas of theology and academia. In our modern times there are more scholars developing biblical studies, commentaries and other academic developments. Bible studies have become prevalent in parishes, with more and more texts becoming available for this study. This all goes to show that there has been a wide-spread rejuvenation of interest in the scriptures. And due to the guiding nature of Dei Verbum, much of this interest is properly structured.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
